Nothing in life is as important as you think it is, while you are thinking about it.

A reliable way to make people believe in falsehoods is frequent repetition, because familiarity is not easily distinguished from truth.

The planning fallacy describes our tendency to underestimate time, costs, and risks while overestimating benefits. This occurs because:<ul><li>We focus on the specific case (inside view) rather than statistical averages (outside view)</li><li>We imagine best-case scenarios rather than likely obstacles</li><li>We underweight past experiences in favor of current plans</li><li>Competitors deliberately underbid to win projects</li><li>Optimism is rewarded in organizational cultures</li></ul>This explains why projects consistently exceed budgets and timelines across domains. The remedy comes from the outside view—looking at statistical patterns from similar projects rather than the details of the current plan.

Planning Fallacy

Your mind operates using two distinct systems:
<ul>
<li>System 1: Fast, automatic, intuitive, and effortless</li>
<li>System 2: Slow, deliberate, analytical, and energy-intensive</li>
</ul>
System 1 provides immediate impressions, feelings, and responses with no sense of voluntary control. System 2 engages in complex reasoning but requires effort and attention. Most daily life operates on System 1, with System 2 monitoring in a low-effort mode, fully engaging only when necessary.
The relationship explains why we're prone to cognitive errors—System 1 runs the show most of the time, with overconfident judgments that System 2 often fails to check.

Two Systems

We can be blind to the obvious, and we are also blind to our blindness.

The availability heuristic causes us to judge probability based on how easily examples come to mind. This creates predictable distortions:
<ul>
<li>Vivid incidents seem more common than statistics suggest</li>
<li>Recent events appear more probable than distant ones</li>
<li>Personally experienced events feel more likely than abstract data</li>
<li>Emotional impacts enhance availability, further skewing judgment</li>
<li>Media coverage amplifies this effect by highlighting dramatic stories</li>
</ul>
This mental shortcut developed as an evolutionary adaptation for quick threat assessment but misfires in a world of complex, statistical risks. Understanding this bias helps explain both individual anxiety and societal overreactions to dramatic but rare events.

The Availability Heuristic

Loss aversion reveals that losses impact us approximately twice as strongly as equivalent gains. This asymmetry:<ul><li>Makes us reject favorable gambles with positive expected values</li><li>Creates the endowment effect where we overvalue what we already possess</li><li>Explains status quo bias and resistance to change</li><li>Drives risk-seeking behavior when facing certain losses</li><li>Produces risk-aversion when protecting sure gains</li></ul>This fundamental asymmetry evolved as a survival mechanism—losing essential resources could mean death, while additional gains merely improved comfort. The resulting psychological imbalance explains behavior from investment decisions to product pricing to political resistance to reforms.

Loss Aversion

The peak-end rule reveals we judge experiences primarily by their most intense point and their conclusion, largely ignoring duration. This mental shortcut:<ul><li>Prioritizes the worst/best moment and the final moment</li><li>Neglects how long an experience lasted</li><li>Creates opportunities to improve experiences by managing endings</li><li>Explains why painful experiences with better endings feel preferable</li><li>Creates a disconnect between real-time and remembered evaluations</li></ul>This pattern shapes our choices about which experiences to repeat, despite being mathematically irrational. It explains why unpleasant necessities from medical procedures to customer service interactions can be improved dramatically by managing peaks and endings rather than duration.

Peak-End Rule

WYSIATI (What You See Is All There Is) describes our mind's tendency to form judgments based solely on available information while remaining blind to what we don't know. This mental process:
<ul>
<li>Constructs coherent stories from limited evidence</li>
<li>Ignores the quality and quantity of information</li>
<li>Creates overconfidence in current knowledge</li>
<li>Generates illusions of understanding through narrative coherence</li>
<li>Operates automatically without awareness of missing information</li>
</ul>
The mind doesn't naturally account for unknown information—in fact, it typically fails to recognize that information is missing at all. This explains overconfidence in predictions, blindness to alternatives, and why people can feel absolute certainty despite limited evidence.

What You See Is All There Is

Regression to the mean describes how extreme outcomes tend to be followed by more average ones. This statistical phenomenon:<ul><li>Creates a powerful illusion of causality where none exists</li><li>Explains apparent reversals of good or bad luck</li><li>Occurs in any measure influenced by random factors</li><li>Gets misattributed to interventions that happen between measurements</li><li>Appears in domains from sports to medicine to investments</li></ul>Humans resist probabilistic thinking, preferring causal explanations even when randomness is the true driver. This leads to false beliefs about the effectiveness of punishments, rewards, and interventions that simply happened to occur before natural regression.

Regression to the Mean

Cognitive ease refers to the feeling of fluency, familiarity, and truthfulness that emerges when information is presented clearly. This state:<ul><li>Makes ideas feel more true</li><li>Creates positive feelings toward the content</li><li>Reduces analytical thinking</li><li>Increases reliance on intuition</li><li>Generates a sense of confidence</li></ul>We constantly but unconsciously monitor our cognitive ease, with difficulty or disfluency triggering analytical thinking. This explains why rhyming statements seem truer (woes unite foes), familiar brand names feel safer, and simple language persuades more effectively than complex jargon.

Cognitive Ease

Anchoring occurs when an initial reference value disproportionately influences subsequent judgments. This effect:<ul><li>Works even when the anchor is obviously irrelevant</li><li>Persists even when people are warned about it</li><li>Affects experts and novices alike</li><li>Operates in physical judgments, price evaluations, and negotiations</li><li>Functions as an automatic System 1 suggestion that System 2 adjusts insufficiently</li></ul>The power comes from our tendency to consider the anchor and adjust away from it, rather than evaluating independently. This creates a gravitational pull toward the initial value, explaining why starting numbers in negotiations matter tremendously.

Anchoring Effect

Framing effects demonstrate how presentation dramatically influences decisions without changing substantive information. This occurs because:<ul><li>Our automatic System 1 responds emotionally to framing</li><li>Positive frames evoke risk aversion; negative frames trigger risk seeking</li><li>We react to description rather than underlying reality</li><li>Different frames highlight different reference points</li><li>These effects persist even with awareness of the manipulation</li></ul>The same objective situation—whether medical treatments, financial investments, or policy options—produces significantly different choices depending on whether outcomes are described as gains or losses. This challenges the rational agent model since logically equivalent options should produce identical decisions.

Framing Effect

Ever wonder why you make snap judgments that later seem irrational? This groundbreaking book reveals how your mind operates on two levels: the fast, intuitive System 1 and the slow, deliberate System 2. Nobel Prize-winning psychologist Daniel Kahneman explains why we make predictable errors and how our biases influence decisions from the grocery store to the stock market. It's not about becoming perfectly rational—that's impossible—but about recognizing when your thinking is leading you astray and knowing when to slow down.

Major New York Times bestseller Winner of the National Academy of Sciences Best Book Award in 2012 Selected by the New York Times Book Review as one of the ten best books of 2011 A Globe and Mail Best Books of the Year 2011 Title One of The Economist's 2011 Books of the Year One of The Wall Street Journal's Best Nonfiction Books of the Year 2011 2013 Presidential Medal of Freedom Recipient Kahneman's work with Amos Tversky is the subject of Michael Lewis's The Undoing Project: A Friendship That Changed Our Minds In his mega bestseller, Thinking, Fast and Slow, Daniel Kahneman, the renowned psychologist and winner of the Nobel Prize in Economics, takes us on a groundbreaking tour of the mind and explains the two systems that drive the way we think. System 1 is fast, intuitive, and emotional; System 2 is slower, more deliberative, and more logical. The impact of overconfidence on corporate strategies, the difficulties of predicting what will make us happy in the future, the profound effect of cognitive biases on everything from playing the stock market to planning our next vacation—each of these can be understood only by knowing how the two systems shape our judgments and decisions. Engaging the reader in a lively conversation about how we think, Kahneman reveals where we can and cannot trust our intuitions and how we can tap into the benefits of slow thinking. He offers practical and enlightening insights into how choices are made in both our business and our personal lives—and how we can use different techniques to guard against the mental glitches that often get us into trouble. Winner of the National Academy of Sciences Best Book Award and the Los Angeles Times Book Prize and selected by The New York Times Book Review as one of the ten best books of 2011, Thinking, Fast and Slow is destined to be a classic.

Daniel Kahneman (born 5 March 1934) is an Israeli-American psychologist and winner of the 2002 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, notable for his work on behavioral finance and hedonic psychology.With Amos Tversky and others, Kahneman established a cognitive basis for common human errors using heuristics and biases (Kahneman & Tversky, 1973, Kahneman, Slovic & Tversky, 1982), and developed Prospect theory (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979). He was awarded the 2002 Nobel Prize in Economics for his work in Prospect theory. Currently, he is professor emeritus of psychology at Princeton University's Department of Psychology.

DANIEL KAHNEMAN

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ALAIN DE BOTTON

Sanity is not statistical